Historical legacies, clientelism and the capacity to fight: exploring pathways to regime tenure in Tanzaniaстатья из журнала
Аннотация: Abstract While regimes in countries like Cameroon, Guinea, Togo and Tanzania have survived the transition from single to multiparty rule, this article suggests two unique characteristics for the case of regime tenure in Tanzania. First, while transitions in other cases were characterized by widespread protests and/or popular opposition movements, opposition in Tanzania's transition environment was minuscule by comparison. Secondly, while repression is still widespread in Tanzania, overt repression appears to be less prevalent in Tanzania when compared to most other strong tenure cases. This study first explores the comparative role of overt repression as a viable explanation for the strong tenure of the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM). Upon closer examination, however, the article argues that accounting for the structures and processes that shape the capacities of political actors to engage in political battles might provide for a more complete appreciation of the CCM's ability to remain the country's dominant political actor, despite the multiparty transition. Keywords: AfricaTanzaniademocratizationregimesparties Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr Richard Deeg and Dr Niyi Akinnaso, at Temple University; Dr Elke Zuern, at Sarah Lawrence College; Dr Antonio Jose Lucero, at the University of Washington, and Thorvald Gran and Lars Svåsand, at the University of Bergen for their unwavering guidance during my research for this work. I am especially thankful to my family for their patience and moral support during the course of this work. Notes See Sandbrook Sandbrook, Richard. 1998. Transitions Without Consolidation: Democratization in Six African Cases. Third World Quarterly, 17(1): 69–87. (doi:10.1080/01436599650035789)[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Transitions with Consolidation’; Barkan Barkan, Joel D. 2000. Protracted Transitions among Africa's New Democracies. Democratization, 7(3): 227–43. (doi:10.1080/13510340008403679)[Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], ‘Protracted Transitions’. See Posner Posner, Daniel N. 2007. Regime Change and Ethnic Cleavages in Africa. Comparative Political Studies, 40(11): 1013–27. (doi:10.1177/0010414006291832)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Regime Change and Ethnic Cleavages’; Means Means, Gordon P. 1996. Soft Authoritarianism in Malaysia. Journal of Democracy, 4(4): 103–7. (doi:10.1353/jod.1996.0065)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Soft Authoritarianism’; Schedler Schedler, Andrew. 2002. The Menu of Manipulation. Journal of Democracy, 13(2): 36–50. (doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0031)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘The Menu of Manipulation’; Levitsky and Way Levitsky, Steven and Way, Lucan. 2002. The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy, 13(2): 55–65. (doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0026)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism’. Schedler Schedler, Andrew. 2002. The Menu of Manipulation. Journal of Democracy, 13(2): 36–50. (doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0031)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘The Menu of Manipulation’, 39–43; Levitsky and Way Levitsky, Steven and Way, Lucan. 2002. The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy, 13(2): 55–65. (doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0026)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism’, 53. TANU and the ASP governed the Mainland and the Isles, respectively, from the time of independence until the 1977 merger between the two parties that constituted the CCM. The term ‘anti-climatic’ draws from a 1993 volume by Max Mmuya and Amon Chilagha Mmuya, Max and Chaligha, Amon. 1993. The Anticlimax in Kwahani Zanzibar: Participation and Multipartism in Tanzania, Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press. [Google Scholar] entitled ‘The Anticlimax in Kwahani Zanzibar’. When studying the events in the country's first multiparty bi-election, the authors use the term to describe the contrast between high hopes and expectations for multiparty change on one hand and weak opposition performance and low voter participation on the other hand. The interview sources used in this article are as follows: Harold Jaffu, Secretary General of the Tanzanian Labour Party (TLP), 19 October 1999; John Cheyo, Chairman of the United Democratic Party (UDP), 20 October 1999; Paul H. Kyara, Treasurer and acting Chairman of the Party for Democracy and Development (Chadema), 28 October 1999; Dr Wilbrod Slaa, Secretary General of Chadema, 13 October 2006; Octavian Matikico, National Executive Committee of TLP, 21 October 2006. See Coleman Coleman, James S. “The Politics of sub-Saharan Africa”. In The Politics of Developing Areas Edited by: Almond and, Gabriel A. and Coleman, James S. chap. 4, 247–368. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960 [Google Scholar], ‘The Politics of sub-Saharan Africa’; Pempel Pempel, T. J. 1990. Uncommon Democracies: The One-Party Dominant Regimes, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Uncommon Democracies; Giliomee and Simkins Giliomee, Hermann and Charles, Simkins. 1999. The Awkward Embrace: One-Party Dominance and Democracy, Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers. [Google Scholar], The Awkward Embrace; Ware Ware, Alan. 1996. Political Parties and Party Systems, Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar], Political Parties and Party Systems. Sartori Sartori, Giovanni. 1976. Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar], Parties and Party Systems. Rakner and Svåsand Reporters Sans Frontières. ‘Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2009: How the Index was Compiled’ http://en.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/note_methodo_en.pdf. (accessed August 2, 2010). [Google Scholar], ‘From Dominant to Competitive Party Systems’; Boogards Boogards, Matthijs. 2004. Counting Parties and Identifying Dominant Party Systems in Africa. European Journal of Political Research, 43(2): 179–97. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Counting Parties’; Erdmann and Basedau Erdmann, Gero and Basedau, Matthias. 2008. Party Systems in Africa: Problems of Categorising and Explaining Party Systems. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 26(3): 241–58. (doi:10.1080/02589000802332408)[Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], ‘Party Systems in Africa’. See note 8. Blondel Blondel, J. 1968. Party Systems and Patterns of Government in Western Democracies. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 1(2): 180–201. (doi:10.1017/S0008423900036507)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Party Systems and Patterns of Government’. See also Boogards Boogards, Matthijs. 2004. Counting Parties and Identifying Dominant Party Systems in Africa. European Journal of Political Research, 43(2): 179–97. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Counting Parties’; Erdmann and Basedau Erdmann, Gero and Basedau, Matthias. 2008. Party Systems in Africa: Problems of Categorising and Explaining Party Systems. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 26(3): 241–58. (doi:10.1080/02589000802332408)[Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], ‘Party Systems in Africa’. The Union between the Mainland and Zanzibar created a controversial two-tiered government system. The country as a whole is subject to the jurisdiction of the Union government, while Isles are simultaneously governed by the Zanzibar Presidency and House of Representatives. Both institutions function separately from the Union government and are constituted by elections held only on Zanzibar. Similar victory margins can also be seen in the parliamentary elections. Baregu and Mushi Baregu, Mwesiga and Mushi, S. S. “Mobilization, Participation and System Legitimacy”. In Liberalization and Politics: The 1990 Election in Tanzania Edited by: Mukandala and, Rwekaza S. and Othman, Haroub. chap. 5, 90–133. Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press, 1994 [Google Scholar], ‘Mobilization, Participation and System Legitimacy’, 124. United Republic of Tanzania United Republic of Tanzania. ‘The Presidential Commission on Single Party or Multiparty System in Tanzania, 1991, Vol. 1’. Dar es Salaam, 1992. [Google Scholar], ‘The Presidential Commission on Single Party or Multiparty System in Tanzania’, 69. Erdmann Erdmann, Gero. ‘Guided Democratization: Political Perceptions and Attitudes in Tanzania’. Africa Discussion Papers no. 11, University of Bremen, 1994. [Google Scholar], ‘Guided Democratization’, 8–10. Diamond Diamond, Larry. 2002. Thinking About Hybrid Regimes. Journal of Democracy, 13(2): 21–35. (doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0025)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Thinking about Hybrid Regimes’; Schedler Schedler, Andrew. ‘Transitions from Electoral Authoritarianism’. Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas. Report no. 222. Mexico, 2010 [Google Scholar], ‘Transitions from Electoral Authoritarianism’. Tilly Tilly, Charles. 1978. From Mobilization to Revolution, New York: McGraw-Hill. [Google Scholar], From Mobilization to Revolution, 53; Posner Posner, Paul W. 1999. Popular Representation and Political Dissatisfaction in Chile's New Democracy. Journal or Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 41(1): 59–85. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], ‘Popular Representation and Political Dissatisfaction’, 74; Muller and Weede Muller, Edward N. and Weede, Erich. 1990. Cross-National Variation in Political Violence: A Rational Action Approach. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 34(4): 624–51. (doi:10.1177/0022002790034004003)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Cross-National Variation in Political Violence’, 626. This was the response to the following interview question: ‘What do you think is the most important reason for the opposition losses in the 1995 election?’ Interview with John Cheyo at UDP national party headquarters, interview by Richard Whitehead, 20 October 1999. This was the response to the following interview question: ‘What role do you see for the CCM in enabling or inhibiting broad support for opposition parties?’ Interview with Octavian Matikico at TLP national party headquarters, interview by Richard Whitehead, 2006, 21 October. This was the response to the following interview question: ‘In terms of elections, what factors do you think could strengthen the [party name] chances of winning more seats in the Bunge?’ Interview with Dr Wilbur Slaa, interview by Richard Whitehead at Chadema national party headquarters, 13 October 2006. See notes 24, 25, 26 and 29. Sued, ‘Campaign Issues’, 3; ‘Mrema Complains of Police Harassment ‘Mrema Complains of Police Harassment’. The African, October 27, 2005. [Google Scholar]’, 1. Sadallah Sadallah, Mwinyi. ‘Police Break up Planned Demo’. The Guardian (Tanzania), April 15, 2005. [Google Scholar], ‘Police Break up Planned Demo’, 2; ‘CCM Cancels Rally to Avert Violence ‘CCM Cancels Rally to Avert Violence’. The Daily News, December 9, 2005. [Google Scholar]’, 1; Dismas Dismas, Paschal. ‘Govt Gives Mrema Body Guards’. The Guardian (Tanzania), September 14, 1995. [Google Scholar], ‘Govt Gives Mrema Body Guards’, 1. Yussuf Yussuf, Issa. ‘Hamad Barred from Registering’. The Guardian (Tanzania), April 15, 2005. [Google Scholar], ‘Hamad Barred from Registering’, 1; ‘Zanzibar Polls End amid Claims of Irregularities, Intimidation ‘Zanzibar Polls End amid Claims of Irregularities, Intimidation’. The African, November 1, 2005. [Google Scholar]’, 2; Whitehead Whitehead, Richard. ‘An Assessment of Voter Registration and Campaigns: The 2005 Tanzania General Elections’. Research and Education for Democracy in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam, 2005 [Google Scholar], ‘An Assessment of Registration and Campaigns’; Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee. 2001. The 2000 General Elections in Tanzania Dar es Salaam [Google Scholar], The 2000 General Elections in Tanzania; Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee. 2006. The 2005 General Elections in Tanzania Dar es Salaam [Google Scholar], The 2005 General Elections in Tanzania. See Baregu, ‘The Rise and Fall of the One-Party State’; Hoffman and Robinson Hoffman, Barak and Robinson, Lindsay. 2009. Tanzania's Missing Opposition. Journal of Democracy, 20(4): 123–36. (doi:10.1353/jod.0.0117)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Tanzania's Missing Opposition’. Hoffman and Robinson Hoffman, Barak and Robinson, Lindsay. 2009. Tanzania's Missing Opposition. Journal of Democracy, 20(4): 123–36. (doi:10.1353/jod.0.0117)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Tanzania's Missing Opposition’, 124. Kabendera Kabendera, Erick. ‘Party Office Surrounded’. The Citizen, November 2, 2005. [Google Scholar], ‘Party Office Surrounded’, 1; Idrissa Idrissa, Jabir. ‘Three Shot in Zanzibar Post Polls Fracas’. The African, November 2, 2005. [Google Scholar], ‘Three Shot in Zanzibar post Polls Fracas’, 2. United States Department of State United States Department of State. ‘Tanzania: Country Report on Human Rights Practices – 2009’. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/af/839.htm. (accessed July 5, 2010). [Google Scholar], ‘Tanzania: Country Report on Human Rights Practices’. Whitehead Whitehead, Richard. ‘Single-Party Rule in a Multiparty Age: Tanzania in Comparative Perspective’. PhD diss., Temple University, 2009. [Google Scholar], ‘Single-Party Rule in a Multiparty Age’, 95–100. At the time of the data analysis for this study, there were only a handful of Afrobarometer surveys for 2008. Therefore, in order to maximize the number of cases and consistency between them, I relied exclusively on 2005 data sets. Question number 54c from the 2005 set asks ‘please tell me if the following things are worse or better now than they used to be, or about the same: Freedom from being arrested when you are innocent?’ Answers include much worse, worse, same, better, much better, don't know, or refused to answer. See Afrobarometer Afrobarometer. ‘Survey Data’. http://www.afrobarometer.org/data.html (accessed November 29, 2009). [Google Scholar], ‘Survey Data’. The cases include Benin, Botswana, Cape Verde, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia. Question number 54b from the 2005 set asks ‘please tell me if the following things are worse or better now than they used to be, or about the same: Freedom to join any political organization you want?’ Answers include much worse, worse, same, better, much better, don't know, or refused to answer. See Afrobarometer Afrobarometer. ‘Survey Data’. http://www.afrobarometer.org/data.html (accessed November 29, 2009). [Google Scholar], ‘Survey Data.’ Civil liberties are defined by Freedom House according to four sub-categories. These include freedom of expression and belief, associational and organizational rights, rule of law and personal autonomy and individual rights. See Freedom House Freedom House. ‘Methodology’. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=35&year=2006. (accessed May 31, 2010). [Google Scholar], ‘Methodology’. Freedom House Freedom House. ‘Freedom in the World Comparative and Historical Data’http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=439 (accessed May 31, 2010). [Google Scholar], ‘Freedom in the World Comparative and Historical Data’. See ‘Tanzania: Government Bans Private Weekly ‘Tanzania: Government Bans Private Weekly’. Committee to Protect Journalists. October 13, 2008. http://cpj.org/2008/12/tanzania-government-bans-private-weekly.php (accessed August 2, 2010). [Google Scholar]’; ‘Leading Investigative Weekly Suspended in Tanzania ‘Leading Investigative Weekly Suspended in Tanzania’. Committee to Protect Journalists, January 12, 2010. http://cpj.org/2010/01/leading-investigative-weekly-suspended-in-tanzania.php (accessed August 2, 2010). [Google Scholar]’. Media Institute of Southern Africa Media Institute of Southern Africa. ‘Tanzania Election Media Monitoring 2005’. Dar es Salaam, 2006. [Google Scholar], ‘Tanzania Election Media Monitoring 2005’. Freedom House Freedom House. ‘Freedom of the Press – Tanzania (2009)’http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2009. (accessed May 31, 2010). [Google Scholar], ‘Freedom of the Press – Tanzania (2009)’. This statement is based on an analysis of United States Department of State Human Rights reports for Tanzania from 1994 to 2006. During this period, the State Department reported 60 separate cases of politically related media interferences throughout the entire country. A total of 33 took place on the Mainland. See note 30, pp. 95–100. Reporters Sans Frontières Rakner, Lise and Svåsand, Lars. 2004. From Dominant to Competitive Party Systems: The Zambian Experience 1991–2001. Party Politics, 10(1): 49–68. (doi:10.1177/1354068804041316)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Tanzania Report – 2010’. The RSF index is based on questionnaires that ascertain the number of violations against journalists (murders, imprisonments, attacks and threats) and the news media (harassment, searches, and censorships), the degree of impunity enjoyed by the perpetrators, the level of self-censorship and independence of the public media, and legal frameworks that govern the media. See Reporters Sans Frontières Rakner, Lise and Svåsand, Lars. 2005. Stuck in Transition: Electoral Processes in Zambia, 1991–2001. Democratization, 12(1): 85–105. (doi:10.1080/1351034042000317970)[Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], ‘Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2009: How the Index was Compiled’; Reporters Sans Frontières Reporters Sans Frontières. ‘Tanzania Report – 2010’. http://en.rsf.org/report-tanzania,252.html. (accessed August 2, 2010). [Google Scholar], ‘World Press Freedom Index 2009: The Rankings’. Conducted on an annual basis, the Freedom of the Press index is a composite measurement of media independence based on an assessment of laws and regulations that influence media content, political pressures and controls on media content, and economic influences over media content. Countries are ranked according to press freedom levels on a scale between 0 and 100. See Freedom House Freedom House. ‘Freedom of the Press Historical Data’http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=274 (accessed May 29, 2010). [Google Scholar], ‘Freedom of the Press Historical Data’. Freedom House Freedom House. ‘Freedom of the Press Historical Data’http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=274 (accessed May 29, 2010). [Google Scholar], ‘Freedom of the Press Historical Data’. For the connection between election rigging and repression, see Schedler Schedler, Andrew. 2002. The Menu of Manipulation. Journal of Democracy, 13(2): 36–50. (doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0031)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘The Menu of Manipulation’; Levitsky and Way Levitsky, Steven and Way, Lucan. 2002. The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy, 13(2): 55–65. (doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0026)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism’. References to election rigging in Tanzania can be found in Sundet Sundet, Geir. ‘Democracy in Transition: 1995 Elections in Tanzania’. Norwegian Institute of Human Rights. Report no. 8. Oslo, 1996 [Google Scholar], ‘Democracy in Transition’; Mørck Mørck, Anna Birgitte. 2006. The United Republic of Tanzania: Presidential and Parliamentary Elections December 2005, Oslo: The Norwegian Centre for Human Rights. [Google Scholar], ‘The United Republic of Tanzania’; Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee. 2006. The 2005 General Elections in Tanzania Dar es Salaam [Google Scholar], The 2005 General Elections in Tanzania. Sundet Sundet, Geir. ‘Democracy in Transition: 1995 Elections in Tanzania’. Norwegian Institute of Human Rights. Report no. 8. Oslo, 1996 [Google Scholar], ‘Democracy in Transition’; Mørck, ‘The United Republic of Tanzania’; Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee. 1997. The 1995 General Elections in Tanzania Dar es Salaam [Google Scholar], The 1995 General Elections in Tanzania; Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee. 2001. The 2000 General Elections in Tanzania Dar es Salaam [Google Scholar], The 2000 General Elections in Tanzania; Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee. 2006. The 2005 General Elections in Tanzania Dar es Salaam [Google Scholar], The 2005 General Elections in Tanzania. Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee. 2001. The 2000 General Elections in Tanzania Dar es Salaam [Google Scholar], The 2000 General Elections, 86–7. Sundet, ‘Democracy in Transition’; Mørck, ‘The United Republic of Tanzania’; Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee. 2006. The 2005 General Elections in Tanzania Dar es Salaam [Google Scholar], The 2005 General Elections in Tanzania. Freedom House Freedom House. ‘Freedom in the World – Zambia (2004)’http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=363&year=2004&country=3060 (accessed May 31, 2010). [Google Scholar], ‘Freedom in the World – Zambia’; Burnell Burnell, Peter. 2002. Zambia's 2001 Elections: The Tyranny of Small Decisions, Non-decisions and Not Decisions. Third World Quarterly, 23(6): 1103–20. (doi:10.1080/0143659022000036630)[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Zambia's 2001 Elections’; Rakner and Svåsand Reporters Sans Frontières. ‘World Press Freedom Index 2009: The Rankings’. http://en.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/classement_en.pdf. (accessed August 2, 2010). [Google Scholar], ‘Stuck in Transition’; Throup and Hornsby Throup, David and Hornsby, Charles. 1998. Multi-Party Politics in Kenya, Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers. [Google Scholar], Multi-Party Politics in Kenya; Rutten, Mazrui and Grignon Rutten, M. M.E.M., Mazrui, Alamin and Grignon, François. 2001. Out for the Count. The 1997 General Elections and Prospects for Democracy in Kenya, Kampala: Fountain Publishers. [Google Scholar], Out for the Count. See Sundet Sundet, Geir. ‘Democracy in Transition: 1995 Elections in Tanzania’. Norwegian Institute of Human Rights. Report no. 8. Oslo, 1996 [Google Scholar], ‘Democracy in Transition’; Mørck, ‘The United Republic of Tanzania’; Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee. 2006. The 2005 General Elections in Tanzania Dar es Salaam [Google Scholar], The 2005 General Elections in Tanzania. Question number 45 asks ‘on the whole, how would you rate the freeness and fairness of the last national election? Was it completely free and fair; free and fair, but with minor problems; free and fair, with major problems; not free and fair; do not understand the question; don't know; refused to answer’. See Afrobarometer Afrobarometer. ‘Survey Data’. http://www.afrobarometer.org/data.html (accessed November 29, 2009). [Google Scholar], ‘Survey Data’. Question number 54d asks ‘please tell me if the following things are worse or better now than they used to be, or about the same: Freedom to choose who to vote for without feeling pressured?’ Answers include much worse, worse, same, better, much better, don't know, or refused to answer. See Afrobarometer Afrobarometer. ‘Survey Data’. http://www.afrobarometer.org/data.html (accessed November 29, 2009). [Google Scholar], ‘Survey Data’. Political rights are defined by Freedom House according to three sub-categories. These include electoral process, political pluralism and participation, and the functioning of government. When aggregated, political rights scores range from 1 (most free) to 7 (least free). See Freedom House Freedom House. ‘Methodology’. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=35&year=2006. (accessed May 31, 2010). [Google Scholar], ‘Methodology’. See Beblawi Beblawi, Hazem. “The Rentier State in the Arab World”. In The Arab State Edited by: Luciani, Giacomo. chap. 4, 85–98. California: University of California Press, 1990 [Google Scholar], ‘The Rentier State in the Arab World’; Smith Smith, Benjamin. 2004. Oil Wealth and Regime Survival in the Developing World: 1960–1999. American Journal of Political Science, 48(2): 232–46. (doi:10.1111/j.0092-5853.2004.00067.x)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Oil Wealth and Regime Survival’. There are a number of findings that support the claim that Tanzania's post-reform economy has still largely been defined by peasant or smallholder production. First, as of the late 1990s traditional production methods went to produce some 93% of the domestically consumed milk and 99% of the domestically consumed meat (see Sarwatt and Mollel Sarwatt, Sebastian, and Esther Mollel. ‘Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles: United Republic of Tanzania. United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization. http://www.fao.org (accessed November 23, 2007). [Google Scholar], ‘Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles). Secondly, in Tanzania, it is the smallholders and traditional agro-pastoralists that use about 85% of the arable land for productive purposes. While there are 44 million hectares of arable land throughout the country, medium and large-scale farming exploits only 100 thousand hectares (see Tanzania Bankers Association Tanzania Bankers Association. The Land Reform in Tanzania: Opportunities for Agriculture and Mortgage Finance. Paper presented at the Tanzania Bankers Association Conference March 8. [Google Scholar], ‘The Land Reform in Tanzania’). During the 1990s, structural adjustment policies, which entailed reducing the size of the state bureacracy, removing subsidies on basic food needs, and introducing user fees on health and education services, tended to reduce resources available to most of the country's citizens, thus raising the likelihood of political conflict (see Barkan Barkan, Joel D. 1994. “Divergence and Convergence in Kenya and Tanzania: Pressures for Reform”. In Beyond Capitalism vs. Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania, Edited by: Barkan, chap. 1, 1–45, Joel D. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. [Google Scholar], ‘Divergence and Convergence’, 30; Kaiser Kaiser, Paul J. 1996. Structural Adjustment and the Fragile Nation: The Demise of Social Unity in Tanzania. Journal of Modern African Studies, 34(2): 227–37. (doi:10.1017/S0022278X00055300)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Structural Adjustment and the Fragile Nation’, 236). Mmuya and Chaligha Mmuya, Max and Chaligha, Amon. 1992. Towards Multiparty Politics in Tanzania, Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press. [Google Scholar]. Towards Multiparty Politics in Tanzania, 34–5. Pierson Pierson, Paul. 2004. Politics in Time: Historical Institutions, and Social Analysis, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Politics in Time, 10. See Stichombe Stichombe, Arthur. 1968. Constructing Social Theories, New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World. [Google Scholar], Constructing Social Theories. Geddes Geddes, Barbara. Authoritarian Breakdown: Empirical Test of a Game Theoretic Argument. Paper presented at annual meeting of the American Political Science Association. September, Atlanta, GA. [Google Scholar], ‘Authoritarian Breakdown’; Bratton and van de Walle Bratton, Michael and Nicholas, van de Walle. 1997. Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transformation in Comparative Perspective, New York: Cambridge University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Democratic Experiments in Africa. Bayart Bayart, Jean-Francois. 1993. The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly, New York: Longman Group. [Google Scholar], The State in Africa; Taylor Taylor, Scott D. 1999. “Race, Class and Neopatrimonialism in Zimbabwe”. In State Conflict and Democracy in Africa Edited by: Joseph, Richard. chap. 13, 239–66. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner [Google Scholar], ‘Race, Class and Neopatrimonialism in Zimbabwe’. Bratton and van de Walle Bratton, Michael and Nicholas, van de Walle. 1997. Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transformation in Comparative Perspective, New York: Cambridge University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Democratic Experiments in Africa. Barkan Barkan, Joel D. 1994. “Divergence and Convergence in Kenya and Tanzania: Pressures for Reform”. In Beyond Capitalism vs. Socialism in Kenya and Tanzania, Edited by: Barkan, chap. 1, 1–45, Joel D. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. [Google Scholar], ‘Divergence and Convergence’, 2–3; Chege Afrobarometer. ‘Tanzania Data: Round 1’. http://www.afrobarometer.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=25&Itemid=52 (accessed December 12, 2010). [Google Scholar], ‘The Return of Multiparty Politics’, 72. See note 60. Jenkins Jenkins, J. C. 1983. Resource Mobilization Theory and the Study of Social Movements. Annual Review of Sociology, 9: 527–53. (doi:10.1146/annurev.so.09.080183.002523)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Resource Mobilization Theory’; Tarrow Tarrow, Sidney. Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, New York: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar], Power in Movement. See McCarthy and Zald McCarthy, John D. and Zald, Mayer N. 1977. Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory. American Journal of Sociology, 82(6): 1212–39. (doi:10.1086/226464)[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘Resource Mobilization and Social Movements’; Canel Canel, Eduardo. “New Social Movement Theory and Resource Mobilization Theory: The Need for Integration”. In Community Power and Grassroots Democracy: The Transformation of Social Life Edited by: Kaufman and, Michael and Dilla Alfonso, Haroldo. chap 9, 189–221. London: Zed Books, 1997 [Google Scholar], ‘New Social Movem
Год издания: 2011
Авторы: Richard L. Whitehead
Издательство: Taylor & Francis
Источник: Democratization
Ключевые слова: Political Conflict and Governance, International Development and Aid, African studies and sociopolitical issues
Открытый доступ: closed
Том: 19
Выпуск: 6
Страницы: 1086–1116