Abstract
Color has always been a part of human life since long. All colorants, until the middle of nineteenth century, were of natural origin. Manufacturing of synthetic dyes started in 1856 and the first compound to be synthesized was aniline purple. By the beginning of the twenteeth century, synthetic dyes almost completely replaced natural compounds. Synthetic dyes represent an important class of industrial chemicals, which are used extensively in textile, leather tanning, paper production, food technology, agriculture, light harvesting array, coloring and pharmaceuticals
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adedayo O, Javadpour S, Taylor C, Anderson WA, Moo-Young M (2004) Decolourization and detoxification of methyl red by aerobic bacteria from a wastewater treatment plant. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 20:545–550
Alaton IA, Balcioglu IA, Bahnemann DW (2002) Advanced oxidation of a reactive dyebath effluent: comparision of O3, H2O2/UV-C and TiO2/UV - A process. Water Res 36:1143–1154
Albuquerque MGE, Lopes AT, Serralheiro ML, Novais JM, Pinheiro HM (2005) Biological sulphate reduction and redox mediator effects on azo dye decolourisation in anaerobic-aerobic sequencing batch reactors. Enzyme Microb Technol 36:790–799
Alexander M, Lustigham BK (1996) Effect of chemical structure on microbial degradationn of substituted benzenes. J Agric Food Chem 14:410–413
Al-Kdasi A, Idris A, Saed K, Guan CT (2004) Treatment of textile wastewater by advanced oxidation processes—a review. Global Nest Intl J 6:221–229
Alvarez LH, Perez-Cruz MA, Rangel-Mendez JR, Cervantes FJ (2010) Immobilized redox mediator on metal-oxides nanoparticles and its catalytic effect in a reductive decolorization process. J Hazard Mater 184:268–272
Amoozegar MA, Hajighasemi M, Hamedi J, Asad S, Ventosa A (2010) Azo dye decolorization by halophilic and halotolerant microorganisms. Ann Microbiol. doi: 10.1007/s13213-010-0144-y
Ayed L, Khelifi E, Jannet HB, Miladi H, Cheref A, Achour S, Bakhrouf A (2010) Response surface methodology for decolorization of azo dye methyl orange by bacterial consortium: produced enzymes and metabolites characterization. Chem Eng J 165:200–208
Bafana A, Chakrabarti T (2008) Lateral gene transfer in phylogeny of azoreductase enzyme. Comput Biol Chem 32:191–197
Bafana A, Devi SS, Krishnamurthi K, Chakrabarti T (2007) Kinetics of decolourisation and biotransformation of direct black 38 by C. hominis and P. stutzeri. App Microbiol Biotechnol 74:1145–1152
Banat IM, Nigam P, Singh D, Merchant R (1996) Microbiol degradation of textile—dye containing effluents: a review. Biores Technol 58:217–227
Barragan BE, Costa C, Carmen Marquez C (2007) Biodegradation of azo dyes by bacteria inoculated on solid media. Dyes Pigment 75:73–81
Barsing P, Tiwari A, Joshi T, Garg S (2011) Application of a novel bacterial consortium for mineralization of sulphonated aromatic amines. Biores Technol 102:765–771
Bayley RC, Barbour MG (1984) Degradation of aromatic compounds by the meta and gentisate pathways: Biochemistry and regulation. In: Gibson DT (ed) Microbial degradation of organic compounds. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 253–294
Behnajaday MA, Modirshahla N, Shokri M (2004) Photodestruction of Acid Orange 7 (AO7) in aqueous solutions by UV/H2O2: influence of operational parameters. Chemosphere 55:129–134
Bin Y, Jiti Z, Jing W, Cuihong D, Hongman H, Zhiyong S, Yongming B (2004) Expression and characteristics of the gene encoding azoreductase from Rhodobacter sphaeroides AS1.1737. FEMS Microbiol Lett 236:129–136
Blumel S, Stolz A (2003) Cloning and characterization of the gene coding for the aerobic azoreductase from Pigmentiphaga kullae K24. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 62(2–3):186–190
Blumel S, Knackmuss HJ, Stolz A (2002) Molecular cloning and characterization of the gene coding for the aerobic azoreductase from Xenophilus azovorans KF46F. Appl Environ Microbiol 68(8):3948–3955
Bragger JL, Lloyd AW, Soozandehfar SH, Bloom.field SF, Marriott C, Martin GP (1997) Investigations into the azo reducing activity of a common colonic microorganism. Intl J Pharm 157:61–71
Bras R, Ferra MIA, Pinheiro HM, Goncalves IC (2001) Batch tests for assessing decolourisation of azo dyes by methanogenic and mixed cultures. J Biotechnol 89:155–162
Bromley-Challenor KCA, Knapp JS, Zhang Z, Gray NCC, Hetheridge MJ, Evans MR (2000) Decolorization of an azo dye by unacclimated activated sludge under anaerobic conditions. Water Res 34:4410–4418
Brown D, Hamburger B (1987) The degradation of dyestu.s: part III–investigations of their ultimate degradability. Chemosphere 16:1539–1553
Carliell CM, Barclay SJ, Naidoo N, Buckley CA, Mulholland DA, Senior E (1994) Anaerobic decolorisation of reactive dyes in conventional sewage treatment processes. Water SA 20:341–344
Carliell CM, Barclay N, Buckley CA (1996) Treatment of exhausted reactive dye bath effluent using anaerobic digestion laboratory and full-scale trials. Water SA 22:225–233
Carvalho MC, Pereira C, Gonc-alves IC, Pinheiro HM, Santosa AR, Lopesa, Ferra MI (2008) Assessment of the biodegradability of a monosulfonate azo dye and aromatic amines. Intl Biodeter Biodegrad 62:96–103
Cervantes FJ (2002) Quinones as Electron Acceptors and Redox Mediators for the Anaerobic Biotransformation of Priority Pollutants. Agrotechnology and Food Sciences, Sub-department of Environmental Technology. Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands, p 166
Cervantes FJ (2006) Catalytic effects of different redox mediators on the reductive decolorization of azo dyes. Water Sci Technol 54:165–170
Cervantes FJ, van der Velde S, Lettinga G, Field JA (2000) Competition between methanogenesis and quinone respiration for ecologically important substrates in anaerobic consortia. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 34:161–171
Cervantes FJ, Enr??quez JE, Arvayo GE, Razo-Flores E, Field JA (2007) Biogenic sulphide plays a major role on the riboflavin-mediated decolourisation of azo dyes under sulphate-reducing conditions. Chemosphere 68:1082–1089
Cervantes FJ, Garcia-Espinosa A, Moreno-Reynosa MA, Rangel-Mendez JR (2010) Immobilized redox mediators on anion exchange resins and their role on the reductive decolorization of azo dyes. Environ Sci Technol 44(5):1747–1753
Chang JS, Lin YC (2000) Fed-batch bioreactor strategies for microbial decolorization of azo dye using a Pseudomonas leuteola strain. Biotechnol Pro 16:979–985
Chang JS, Chou C, Lin Y, Ho J, Hu TL (2001) Kinetic Characteristics of bacterial azo-dye decolorization by Pseudomonas luteola. Water Res 35:2041–2850
Chen H (2006) Recent advances in azo dye degrading enzyme research. Curr Protein Pept Sci 7(2):101–111
Chen H, Feng J, Kweon O, Xu H, Cerniglia CE (2010) Identification and molecular characterization of a novel flavin-free NADPH preferred azoreductase encoded by azoB in Pigmentiphaga kullae K24. BMC Biochem 11:13
Chen H, Hopper SL, Cerniglia CE (2005) Biochemical and molecular characterization of an azoreductase from Staphylococcus aureus, a tetrameric NADPH-dependent flavoprotein. Microbiology 151:1433–1441
Chen JP, Lin YS (2007) Decolorization of azo dye by immobilized Pseudomonas luteola entrappe in alginate-silicate sol-gel beads. Process Biochem 42:934–942
Chen KC, Huang WT, Wu JY, Houng JY (1999) Microbial decolorization of azo dyes by Proteus mirabilis. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 23:686–690
Chen KC, Wu JY, Huang CC, Liang YM, Hwang SJ (2003a) Decolorization of azo dye by using PVA immobilized microorganisms. J Biotechnol 101:241–252
Chen KC, Wu JY, Liou DJ, Hwang SJ (2003b) Decolorization of textile dyes by newly isolated bacterial strains. J Biotechnol 101:57–68
Chinwetkitvanich S, Tuntoolvest M, Panswad T (2000) Anaerobic decolorization of reactive dyebath effluents by a two stage UASB system with Tapioca as co-substrate. Water Res 34:2223–2232
Christie R (2001) Colour chemistry. The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK
Chung KT, Stevens SEJ, Cerniglia CE (1992) The reduction of azo dyes by the intestinal microflora. Crit Rev Microbiol 18:175–197
Cinar O, Demiröz K (2010) Biodegradation of azo dyes in anaerobic-aerobic sequencing batch reactors in biodegradation of azo dyes series. In: Atacag Erkurt H (ed) The handbook of environmental chemistry, vol 9, 1st edn. Springer, Berlin
Cinar O, Yasa S, Kertmen M, Demiroz K, Yigit NO, Kitis M (2008) Effect of cycle time on biodegradation of azo dye in sequencing batch reactor. Proc Saf Environ Protect 86:455–460
Costa MC, Mota S, Nascimento RF, Dos Santos AB (2010) Anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate (AQDS) as a catalyst to enhance the reductive decolourisation of the azo dyes Reactive Red 2 and Congo Red under anaerobic conditions. Biores Technol 101(1):105–110
Coughlin MF, Kinkle BK, Bishop PL (1999) Degradation of azo dyes containing amino naphthol by Sphingomonas sp strain ICX. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 23:341–346
Coughlin MF, Kinkle BK, Bishop PL (2002) Degradation of acid orange 7 in an aerobic biofilm. Chemosphere 46:11–19
Coughlin MF, Kinkle BK, Bishop PL (2003) High performance degradation of azo dye acid orange 7 and sulfanilic acid in a laboratory scale reactor after seeding with cultured bacterial strains. Water Res 37:2757–2763
Dafale N, Rao NN, Meshram SU, Wate SR (2008) Decolorization of azo dyes and simulated dye bath wastewater using acclimatized microbial consortium-biostimulation and halo tolerance. Biores Technol 99:2552–2558
Dafale N, Wate SR, Meshram SU, Rao NN (2010) Bioremediation of wastewater containing azo dyes through sequential anaerobic-aerobic bioreactor system and its biodiversity. Environ Rev 18:21–36
Dangmann E, Stolz A, Kuhm AE, Hammer A, Feigel B, Noisommit-Rizzi M, Rizzi M, Knackmuss H-J (1996) Degradation of 4-aminobenzenesulfonate by a two-species bacterial coculture. Physiological interactions between Hydrogenophaga palleronii S1 and Agrobacterium radiobacter S2. Biodegradation 7:223–229
Delee W, O’Niell C, Hawkcs FR, Pinheiro HM (1998) Anaerobic treatment of textile effluents: a reviw. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 73:323–325
Diniz PE, Lopes AT, Lino AR, Serralheiro ML (2002) Anaerobic reduction of a sulfonated azo dye Congo Red by Sulphate reducing bacteria. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 97:147–163
Donlon B, Razo-Flores E, Luijten M, Swarts H, Lettinga G, Field JA (1997) Detoxification and partial mineralization of the azo dye mordant orange 1 in a continuous upflow anaerobic sludge-blanket reactor. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 47:83–90
Dos Santos AB (2005) Reductive decolourisation of dyes by thermophilic anaerobic granular sludge Sub-department of Environmental Technology. Wageningen University, Wageningen, p 176
Dos Santos AB, Bisschops IAE, Cervantes FJ, Van Lier JB (2004) Effect of different redox mediators during thermophilic azo dye reduction by anaerobic granular sludge and comparative study between mesophilic (30°C) and thermophilic (55°C) treatments for decolourisation of textile wastewaters. Chemosphere 55:1149–1157
Dos Santos AB, Cervantes FJ, van Lier JB (2006) Potentials of high-temperature anaerobic treatment and redox mediators for the reductive decolorization of azo dyes from textile wastewaters. Water Sci Technol 54(2):151–156
Dos Santos AB, Cervantes FJ, van Lier JB (2007) Review paper on current technologies for decolourisation of textile wastewaters: Perspectives for anaerobic biotechnology. Biores Technol 98:2369–2385
Dos Santos AB, Cervantes FJ, Yaya-Beas RE, van Lier JB (2003) Effect of redox mediator, AQDS, on the decolorization of a reactive azo dye containing triazine group in a thremophilic anaerobic EGSB reactor. Enzyme Microbiol Technol 33:942–951
Dos Santos AB, Madrid MP, Stams AJM, Van Lier JB, Cervantes FJ (2005) Azo dye reduction by mesophilic and thermophilic anaerobic consortia. Biotechnol Progr 21:1140–1145
Drzyzga O, Blotevogel KH (1997) Microbial degradation of diphenylamine under anoxic conditions. Curr Microbiol 35:343–347
Ekici P, Leupold G, Parlar H (2001) Degradability of selected azo dye metabolites in activated sludge systems. Chemosphere 44:721–728
Elisangela F, Andrea Z, Fabiana F, Isis SS, Artur C, Lucia RD (2009a) Microaerophilic–aerobic sequential decolourization/biodegradation of textile azo dyes by a facultative Klebsiella sp. strain VN-31. Process Biochem 44:446–452
Elisangela F, Andrea Z, Fabio DG, Cristiano R, Regina DL, Artur C (2009b) Biodegradation of textile azo dyes by a facultative Staphylococcus arlettae strain VN-11 using a sequential microaerophilic/aerobic process. Intl Biodeter Biodegrad 63:280–288
Encinas-Yocupicio AA, Razo-Flores E, Sánchez Diaz F, Dos Santos AB, Field JA, Farre M, Barcelo D (2003) Toxicity testing of wastewater and sewage sludge by biosensors, bioassays and chemical analysis. Trends Anal Chem 22(5):299–310
Farre M, Barcelo D (2003) Toxicity testing of wastewater and sewage sludge by biosensors, bioassays and chemical analysis. Trends Anal Chem 22(5):299–310
Feigal BJ, Knackmuss HJ (1993) Syntropic interactions during degradation of 4-aminobenzenesulfonic acid by a two species bacterial culture. Arch Microbiol 159:124–130
Field JA, Brady J (2003) Riboflavin as a redox mediator accelerating the reduction of azo dye mordant yellow 10 by anaerobic granular sludge. Water Sci Technol 48:187–193
Field JA, Stams AJM, Kato M, Schraa G (1995) Enhanced biodegradation of aromatic pollutant in coculture of anaerobic and aerobic bacterial consortia. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 67:47–77
Firmino PIM, da Silva MER, Cervantes FJ, dos Santos AB (2010) Colour removal of dyes from synthetic and real textile wastewaters in one- and two-stage anaerobic systems. Biores Technol 101:7773–7779
Ganesh R, Boardman GD, Michelson D (1994) Fate of azo dyes in sludges. Water Res 28:1367–1376
Georgiou D, Hatires J, Aivasidis A (2005) Microbial immobilization in a two-stage fixed bed reactor pilot plant for on-site anaerobic decolorization of textile wastewater. Enzyme Microbial Technol 37:597–605
Gill M, Strauch RJ (1984) Constituents of Agaricus xanthodermus Genevier: The first naturally endogenous azo compound and toxic phenoloc metabolites Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung C. J Biosci 39c:1027–1029
Golab V, Vinder A, Simonic M (2005) Efficiency of the coagulation/flocculation method for the treatment of dye bath effluent. Dyes Pigments 67:93–97
González-Gutiérrez LV, González-Alatorre G, Escamilla-Silva EM (2009) Proposed pathways for the reduction of a reactive azo dye in an anaerobic fixed bed reactor. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 25:415–426
Guo J, Zhou J, Wang D, Tian C, Wang P, Salah Uddin M, Yu Hui (2007) Biocalalyst effects of immobilized anthraquinone on the anaerobic reduction of azo dyes by the salt-tolerant bacteria. Water Res 41:426–432
Guo J, Zhou J, Wang D, Xiang X, Yu H, Tian C, Song Z (2006) Correlation of anaerobic biodegradability and the electrochemical chatacteristic of azo dyes. Biodegradation 17:341–346
Hao OJ, Kim H, Chang PC (2000) Decolorization of wastewater. Crit Rev Env Sci Technol 30:449–505
Haug W, Schmidt A, Nortemann B, Hempel DC, Stolz A, Knackmuss HJ (1991) Mineralization of the sulfonated azo dye Mordant Yellow 3 by a 6-aminonaphthalene-2-sulfonate-degrading bacterial consortium. Appl Environ Microbiol 57:3144–3149
He F, Hu WR, Li YZ (2004) Investigation of isolation and immobilization of a microbial consortium for decoloring of azo dye 4BS. Water Res 38:3596–3604
Hinter J-P, Lechner C, Riegret U, Kuhm AE, Storm T, Reemtsma T, Stolz A (2001) Direct ring fission of salicylate by a salicylate 1,2-Dioxygensae activity from Pseudaminobacter salicylatoxidans. J Bacteriol 183:6936–6942
Hopper SW (1991) Biodegradation of sulfonated aromatics. In: Chaudhry GR (ed) Biodegradation and bioremediation of toxic themicals. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 169–182
Houk VS (1992) The genotoxicity of industrial wastes and effluents: A review. Mutat Res 277:91–138
Hsueh CC, Chen BY (2008) Exploring effects of chemical structure on azo dye decolorization characteristics by Pseudomonas luteola. J Hazard Mater 154:703–710
Hsueh CC, Chen BY, Yen CY (2009) Understanding effects of chemical structure on azo dye decolorization characteristics by Aeromonas hydrophila. J Hazard Mater 167:995–1001
Isik M, Sponza DT (2005a) Effects of alkalinity and co-substrate on the performance of an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor through decolorization of Congo Red azo dye. Biores Technol 96:633–643
Isik M, Sponza DT (2005b) Substrate removal kinetics in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor decolorizing simulated textile wastewater. Process Biochem 40:1189–1193
Ito K, Nakanishi M, Lee WC, Sasaki H, Zenno S, Saigo K, Kitade Y, Tanokura M (2006) Three-dimensional structure of AzoR from Escherichia coli An oxidereductase conserved in microorganisms. J Biol Chem 281:20567–20576
Jadhav SU, Kalme SD, Govindwar SP (2008) Biodegradation of Methyl red by Galactomyces geotrichum MTCC 1360. Intl Biodeter Biodegrad 62(2):135–142
Jahnke M, Banna T, Klintworth R, Auling G (1990) Mineralisation of Orthanilic acid is a plasmid asociated trait in Alcaligenes sp. O-1. J Gen Microbiol 136:2241–2249
Jensen J, Cornett C, Olsen CE, Bondesen S, Christensen J, Christensen LA, Tjornelund J, Hansen SH (1993) Identification of oxidation products of 5-aminosalicylic acids in faeces and the study of their formation in vitro. Biochem Pharm 45:1201–1209
Jing W, Lihua L, Zhou J, Hong L, Liu G, Jin R, Yang F (2009) Enhanced biodecolorization of azo dyes by electropolymerization-immobilized redox mediator. J Hazard Mater 168(2–3):1098–1104
Junker F, Leisinger T, Cook AM (1994) 3 Sulphocatechol 2,3 dioxygenase and other dioxygenases (E.CI.13.II.2 and ECI.14.12.) in the degradative pathway of 2-aminobenzenesulfonic acid and 4-toluenesulphonic acids in Alcaligenes sp. strain. Microbiology 140:1713–1722
Kahng HY, Kukor JJ, Oh KH (2000) Characterization of strain HY99, a novel microorganism capable of aerobic and anaerobic degradation of aniline. FEMS Microbiol Lett 190:215–221
Kalme SD, Parshetti GK, Jadhav SU, Govindwar SP (2007) Biodegradation of benzidine based dye Direct Blue-6 by Pseudomonas desmolyticum NCIM 2112. Biores Technol 98(7):1405–1410
Kalyuzhnyl S, Sklyar V, Mosolova T, Kucherenko I, Russkova Z, Degtyaryova N (2000) Methanogenic biodegradation of aromatic amines. Water Sci Technol 42:363–370
Kampfer P, Muller C, Mau M, Neef A, Auling G, Busse HJ, Osborne AM, Stolz A (1999) Description of Pseudaminobacter gen Nov. with two new species P. salicylatoxidans sp. nov. and P. defluvii sp. nov. Intl J Syst Bacteriol 149:887–897
Kapdan IK, Alparslan S (2005) Application of anaerobic–aerobic sequential system to real textile wastewater for color and COD removal. Enz Microb Technol 36:273–279
Kapdan IK, Kargi F, McMullan G, Marchant R (2000) Decolorization of textile dye stuffs by a mixed bacterial consortium. Biotechnol Lett 22:1179–1181
Kasper HF, Wuhrmann K (1978) Kinetic parameters and relative turnover of some important catabolic reactions in digesting sludge. Appl Environ Microbiol 36:1–7
Keck A, Conradt D, Mahler A, Stolz A, Mattes R, Klein J (2006) Identification and functional analysis of the genes for naphthalenesulfonate catabolism by Sphingomonas xenophaga BN6. Microbiology 152(7):1929–1940
Keck A, Klein J, Kudlich M, Stolz A, Knackmuss HJ, Mattes R (1997) Reduction of azo dyes by redox mediators originating in the naphthalenesulfonic acid degradation pathway of Sphingomonas sp. strain BN6. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:3684–3690
Keenan PO, Knight AW, Billinton N, Cahill PA, Dalrymple IM, Hawkyard CJ, Stratton-Campbell D, Walmsley RM (2007) Clear and present danger? The use of a yeast biosensor to monitor changes in the toxicity of industrial effluents subjected to oxidative colour removal treatments. J Environ Monit 9:1394–1401
Khalid A, Arshad M, Crowley DE (2008a) Accelerated decolorization of structurally different azo dyes by newly isolated bacterial strains. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 78:361–369
Khalid A, Arshad M, Crowley DE (2008b) Decolorization of azo dyes by Shewanella sp. under saline conditions. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 79(6):1053–1059
Khalid A, Arshad M, Crowley DE (2010) Bioaugmentation of azo dyes in biodegradation of azo dyes series. In: Atacag Erkurt H (ed) The handbook of environmental chemistry, vol 9, 1st edn. Springer, Berlin
Khehra MS, Saini HS, Sharma DK, Chadha BS, Chimni SS (2005) Decolorization of various azo dyes by bacterial consortia. Dyes Pigment 67:55–61
Kodam KM, Soojhawon I, Lokhande PD, Gawai KR (2005) Microbial decolorization of reactive azo dyes under aerobic conditions. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 21:367–370
Kolbener P, Baumann U, Cook AM, Leisinger T (1994) 3-Nitrobenzenesulfonicacid and 3-aminobenzenesulfonic acid in a laboratory trickling filter: Biodegradability with different activated sludges. Water Res 28:1855–1860
Kolekar YM, Pawar SP, Gawai KR, Lokhande PD, Shouche YS, Kodam KM (2008) Decolorization and degradation of Disperse Blue 79 and Acid Orange 10, by Bacillus fusiformis KMK5 isolated from the textile dye contaminated soil. Biores Technol 99(18):8999–900
Kudlich M, Bishop P, Knackmuss HJ, Stolz A (1996) Synchronous anaerobic and aerobic degradation of the sulfonated azo dye Mordant Yellow 3 by immobilized cells from a naphthalenesulfonate-degrading mixed culture. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 46:597–603
Kudlich M, Hetheridge MJ, Knackmuss HJ, Stolz A (1999) Autoxidation reactions of different aromatic o-aminohydroxynaphthalenes that are formed during the anaerobic reduction of sulfonated azo dyes. Environ Sci Technol 33:869–901
Kudlich M, Keck A, Klein J, Stolz A (1997) Localization of the enzyme system involves in anaerobic reduction of azo dyes by Sphingomonas sp. strain BN6 and e.ect of artificial redox mediators on the rate of azo dye reduction. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:3691–3694
Kulla HG, Klausener F, Mayer U, Ludeke B, Leisinger T (1983) Interference of aromatic sulfo groups in the microbial degradation of the azo dyes Orange I and Orange II. Arch Microbiol 135:1–7
Levine WG (1991) Metabolism of azo dyes: Implication for detoxification and activation. Drug Metabol Rev 23:253–309
Li JG, Lalman JA, Biswas N (2004) Biodegradation of Red B dye by Bacillus sp. OY1–2. Environ Technol 25:1167–1176
Liu G, Zhou J, Fu QS, Wang J (2009) The Escherichia coli Azoreductase AzoR Is Involved in Resistance to Thiol-Specific Stress Caused by Electrophilic Quinones. J Bacteriol 191:6394–6400
Liu G, Zhou J, Lv H, Xiang X, Wang J, Zhou M, Qv Y (2007) Azoreductase from Rhodobacter sphaeroides AS1.1737 is a flavodoxin that also functions as nitroreductase and flavin mononucleotide reductase. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 76(6):1271–1279
Locher HH, Thurnheer T, Leisinger T, Cook AM (1989) 3-nitrobenzenesulufonate, 3-aminobenzenesulfonate and 4-aminobenzenesulfonate as sole carbon sources for bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 55:492–494
Lopez-Grimau V, Guitierrez MC (2005) Decolorization of simulated reactive dyebath effluents by electrochemical oxidation assisted by UV light. Chemosphere 62:106–112
Lu H, Zhou J, Wang J, Si W, Teng H, Liu G (2010) Enhanced biodecolorization of azo dyes by anthraquinone-2-sulfonate immobilized covalently in polyurethane foam. Biores Technol 101:7185–7188
Lu X, Liu L, Yang B, Chen J (2009) Reuse of printing and dyeing wastewater in processess assessed by pilot-scale test using combined biological process and sub-filter technology. J Clean Prod 17:111–114
Lu X, Liu R (2010) Treatment of azo dye-containing wastewater using integrated processes in biodegradation of azo dyes. Handb Environ Chem 9:133–155
Maier J, Kandelbaner A, Eracher A, Cavaco-Paulo A, Gubitz GM (2004) A new alkali-thermostable azoreductase from Bacillus sp. strain SF. Appl Environ Microbiol 70:837–844
Mansour HB, Mosrati R, Corroler D, Ghedira K, Barillier D, Chekir-Ghedira L (2009) Mutagenicity and genotoxicity of acid yellow 17 and its biodegradation products. Drug Chem Toxicol 32:222–229
Manu B, Chaudhari S (2003) Decolorization of indigo and azo dyes in semicontinuous reactors with long hydraulic retention time. Process Biochem 38:1213–1221
McMullan G, Meehan C, Conneely A, Kirby N, Robinson T, Nigam P, Banat IM, Merchant R, Smyth WF (2001) Microbial decolorization and degradation of textile dyes. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 56:81–87
Méndez-Paz D, Omil F, Lema LM (2003) Modeling of the Acid Orange 7 anaerobic biodegradation. Water Sci Technol 48:133–139
Mezohegyi G, Kolodkin A, Castro UI, Bengoa C, Stuber F, Font J, Fabregat A (2007) Effective anaerobic decolorization of azo dye acid orange 7 in continuous upflow packed-bed reactor using biological activated carbon system. Ind Eng Chem Res 46:6788–6792
Moir D, Masson S, Chu I (2001) Structure-activity relationship study on the bioreduction of azo dyes by Clostridium paraputrificum. Environ Toxicol Chem 20:479–484
Moosvi S, Keharia H, Madamawar D (2005) Decolorization of textile dye reactive violet by a newly isolated bacterial consortium. RVM 11.1. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 21:667–672
Moutaouakkil A, Zeroual Y, Dzayri FZ, Talbi M, Lee K, Blaghen M (2003) Purification and partial characterization of azoreductase from Enterobacter agglomerans. Arch Biochem Biophys 413:139–146
Moutaouakkil A, Zeroual Y, Dzayri FZ, Talbi M, Lee K, Blaghen M (2004) Decolorization of azo dyes with Enterobacter agglomerans immobilized in different supports by by using fluidized bed bioreactor. Curr Microbiol 48:124–129
Nachiyar CV, Rajakumar GS (2005) Purification and characterization of an oxygen insensitive azoreductase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Enzyme Microbial Technol 36:503–509
Nachiyar CV, Rajkumar GS (2003) Degradation of tannery and textile dye, Navitan Fast Blue S5R by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 19:609–614
Nachiyar CV, Rajkumar GS (2004) Mechanism of Navitan fast Blue S5R degradation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Chemosphere 57:165–169
Nachiyar CV, Vijaylakshmi K, Muralidharan D, Rajkumar GS (2007) Mineralization of metalinic acid by Pseudomonas aeruginosa CLRI BL22. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 23:1733–1738
Nigam P, Banat IM, Singh D, Marchant R (1996) Microbial process for the decolorization of textile effluent containing azo, diazo and reactive dyes. Process Biochem 31:435–442
Nortemann B, Baumgarten J, Rast HG, Knackmuss H-J (1986) Bacterial communities degrading amino and naphthalene-2-sulfonates. Appl Environ Microbiol 52:1195–1202
Ohe T, Ohmoto T, Kobayashi Y, Sato A, Watanabe Y (1990) Microbial degradation of 1,6-and 2,6-naphthalene disulfonic acids by Pseudomonas sp. TA-2. Agricult Biol Chem 54:669–675
Ollgaard H, Frost L, Galster J, Hensen OC (1999) Survey of azo-colorants on Denmark: Milgoproject 509, Danish Environmental Protection Agency
Olukanni OD, Osuntokia AA, Kalyani DC, Gbenlea GO, Govindwar SP (2010) Decolorization and biodegradation of ReactiveBlue13 by Proteus mirabilis LAG. J Hazard Mater 184:290–298
O’Neill C, Hawkes FR, Hawkes DL, Lourenco ND, Pinheiro HM, Delee W (1999) Color in textile effluents sources, measurement, discharge consents and simulation: a review. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 53:249–254
Ooi T, Shibata T, Matsumoto K, Kinoshita S, Taguchi S (2009) Comparative enzymatic analysis of azoreductases from Bacillus sp. B29. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 73(5):1209–1211
Oxspring DA, McMullan G, Smyth WF, Marchant R (1996) Decolourisation and metabolism of the reactive textiledye, Remazol Black B, by an immobilized microbial consortium. Biotechnol Lett 18:527–530
Öztürk A, Abdullah MI (2006) Toxicological effect of indole and its azo dye derivatives on some microorganisms under aerobic conditions. Sci Total Environ 358:137–142
Padmavathy S, Sandhya S, Swaminathan K, Subrahmanyam YV, Kaul SN (2003) Comparison of decolorization of reactive azo dyes by microorganisms isolated from various sources. J Environ Sci 15:628–633 China
Pandey A, Singh P, Iyengar L (2007) Bacterial decolorization and degradation of azo dyes. Intl Biodeter Biodegrad 59(2):73–84
Park HO, Oh S, Bade R, Shin WS (2010) Application of A2O moving-bed biofilm reactors for textile dyeing wastewater treatment. Korean J Chem Eng 27:893–899
Parvez S, Venkataraman C, Mukherji S (2005) A review on advantages of implementing luminescence inhibition test (Vibrio fischeri) for acute toxicity prediction of chemicals. Environ Intl 32:265–288
Pearce CI, Christie R, Boothman C, Von Canstein H, Guthrie JT, Lloyd JR (2006) Reactive azo dye reduction by Shewanella Strain J18 143. Biotechnol Bioeng 95:692–703
Pearce CI, Lloyd JR, Guthrie JT (2003) The removal of color from textile wastewater using whole bacterial cells. A review. Dyes Pigments 58:179–196
Perei K, Rákhely G, Kiss I, Polyák B, Kovács KL (2001) Biodegradation of sulfanilic acid by Pseudomonas paucimobilis. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 55:101–107
Pinheiro HM, Tauraud E, Thomas O (2004) Aromatic amines from azo dye reduction: status review with emphasis on direct UV spectrophotometric detection in textile industry wastewaters. Dyes Pigments 61:121–139
Plumb JJ, Bell J, Stuckey DC (2001) Microbial populations associated with treatment of an industrial dye effluent in an anaerobic baffled reactor. Appl Environ Microbiol 67:3226–3235
Puvaneshwari N, Muthukrishnan J, Gunasekaran P (2006) Toxicity assessment and microbial degradation of azo dyes. Indian J Exp Biol 44:618–626
Rafii F, Cerniglia CE (1995) Reduction of azo dyes and nitroaromatic compounds by bacterial enzymes from the human intestinal tract. Environ Health Perspect 103(5):17–19
Rafii F, Coleman T (1999) Cloning and expression in Escherichia coli of an azoreductase gene from Clostridium perfringens and comparison with azoreductase genes from other bacteria. J Basic Microbiol 39(1):29–35
Rafii F, Franklin W, Cerniglia CE (1990) Azoreductase activity of anaerobic bacteria isolated from human intestinal microflora. Appl Environ Microbiol 56:2146–2151
Rai H, Bhattacharya M, Singh J, Bansal TK, Vats P, Banerjee UC (2005) Removal of dyes from the effluent of textile and dyestuff manufacturing industry: a review of emerging techniques with reference to biological treatment. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 35:219–238
Rajaguru P, Suba S, Palanivelm M, Kalaiselvi K (2003) Genotoxicity of a polluted river system measured using the alkaline comet assay on fish and earthworm tissues. Environ Mol Mutagen 41:85–91
Rajaguru P, Vidya L, Baskarasethupathi B, Kumar PA, Palanivel M, Kalaiselvi K (2002) Genotoxicity evaluation of polluted ground water in human peripheral blood lymphocytes using the comet assay. Mutat Res 517:29–37
Rajamohan N, Karthikeyan C (2006) Kinetics studies of dyes effluent degradation by Pseudomonas stutzeri. J Solid Waste Technol Manag 1–5. Retrieved from http://www.eco-web.com/editorial/061103.html
Rau J, Knackmuss HJ, Stolz A (2002) Effects of different quinoid redox mediators on the anaerobic reduction of azo dyes by bacteria. Environ Sci Technol 36:1497–1504
Rau J, Stolz A (2003) Oxygen-insensitive nitroreductases NfsA and NfsB of Escherichia coli function under anaerobic conditions as Lawsone-dependent azo reductases. Appl Environ Microbiol 69:3448–3455
Razo-Flores E, Donlon B, Field J, Lettinga G (1996) Biodegradability of N-substituted aromatics and alkylphenols under methanogenic conditions using granular sludge. Wat Sci Technol 33:47–57
Razo-Flores E, Luijten M, Donlon B, Lettinga G, Field J (1997a) Biodegradation of selected azo dyes under methanogenic conditions. Water Sci Technol 36:65–72
Razo-Flores E, Luijten M, Donlon B, Lettinga G, Field J (1997b) Complete biodegradation of the azo dye azosalicylate under anaerobic conditions. Environ Sci Technol 31:2098–2103
Robinson T, McMullan G, Marchant R, Nigam P (2001) Remediation of dyes in textile effluent: a critical review on current treatment technologies with a proposed alternative. Biores Technol 77:247–255
Rozgaj R, Glancer SM (1992) Total degradation of 6-amnionaphthalene 2-sulfonic acid by a mixed culture consisting of different bacterial genera. FEMS Microbiol Eco 86:229–236
Ruiz-Arias A, Juárez-RamÃrez C, Cobos-Vasconcelos DD, Ruiz-Ordaz N, Salmerón-Alcocer A, Ahuatzi-Chacón D, GalÃndez-Mayer J (2010) Aerobic biodegradation of a sulfonated phenylazonaphthol dye by a bacterial community immobilized in a multistage packed-bed BAC reactor. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 162(6):1689–1707
Russ R, Rau J, Stolz A (2000) The function of cytoplasmic flavin reductases in the reduction of azo dyes by bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 66:1429–1434
Ryan A, Laurieri N, Westwood I, Wang CJ, Lowe E, Sim E (2010) A novel mechanism for azoreduction. J Mol Biol 400:24–37
Sandhya S (2010) Biodegradation of azo dyes under anaerobic condition: role of azoreductase. In: Atacag Erkurt H (ed) The handbook of environmental chemistry, vol 9. Springer, Berlin, pp 39–57
Saratale RG, Saratale GD, Chang JS, Govindwar SP (2010) Decolorization and biodegradation of reactive dyes and dye wastewater by a developed bacterial consortium. Biodegradation 21:999–1015
Saratale RG, Saratale D, Chang JS, Govindwar SP (2011) Bacterial decolorization and degradation of azo dyes: a review. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 42:138–157
Sarayu K, Sandhya S (2010) Aerobic Biodegradation Pathway for Remazol Orange by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 160(4):1241–1253
Savelieva O, Kotova I, Roelofsenm W, Stams AJM, Netrusov A (2004) Utilization of aminoaromatic acids by a methanogenic enrichment culture and a novel Citrobacter freundii strain. Arch Microbiol 181:163–170
Semde R, Pierre D, Geuskens G, Devleeschouwer M, Moes AJ (1998) Study of some important factors involved in azo derivative reduction by Clostridium perfringens. Intl J Pharm 161:45–54
Senan RC, Abraham TE (2004) Bioremediation of textile azo dyes by aerobic bacterial consortium. Biodegradation 15(4):275–280
Silveira E, Marques PP, Silva SS, Lima-Filho JL, Porto ALF, Tambourgi EB (2009) Selection of Pseudomonas for industrial textile dyes decolorization. Intl Biodeter Biodegrad 63:230–235
Singh P, Birkeland NK, Iyengar L, Gurunath R (2006) Mineralization of 4-aminobenzenesulfonate (4-ABS) by Agrobacterium sp. strain PNS-1. Biodegradation 17:495–502
Singh S, Singh P, Awasthi SK, Pandey A, Iyengar L (2008) Mineralizationn of 2-aminobenzenesulfonate by a bacterial cosortium. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 24:841–847
Srinivasan A, Viraraghavan T (2010) Decolorization of dye wastewaters by biosorbents: a review. J Environ Manag 91:1915–1929
Stolz A (1999) Degradation of substituted naphthalenesulfonic acids by Sphingomonas xenophaga BN6. J Industrial Microbiol Biotechnol 23:391–399
Stolz A (2001) Basic and applied aspects in the microbial degradation of azo dyes. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 56:69–80
Su Y, Zhang Y, Wang J, Zhou J, Lu X, Lu H (2009) Enhanced bio-decolorization of azo dyes by co-immobilized quinone-reducing consortium and anthraquinone. Biores Technol 100(12):2982–2987
Sugiura W, Miyashita T, Yokoyama T, Arai M (1999) Isolation of azo-dye-degrading microorganisms and their application to white discharge printing of fabric. J Bioscien Bioeng 88(5):577–581
Suzuki Y, Yoda T, Ruhul A, Sagiura W (2001) Molecular cloning and characterization of the gene encoding azoreductase from Bacillus sp. OY 1–2 isolated from soil. J Biol Chem 246:9059–9065
Swaminathan K, Sandhya S, Carmalin Sophia A, Pachhade K, Subrahmanyam YV (2003) Decolorization and degradation of H-acid and other dyes using ferrous-hydrogen peroxide system. Chemosphere 50:619–625
Swati MJ, Inamdar SA, Telke AA, Tamboli DP, Govindwar SP (2010) Exploring the potential of natural bacterial consortium to degrade mixture of dyes and textile effluent. Int Biodeter Biodegrad 64:622–628
Talarposhti AM, Donnelly T, Anderson G (2001) Color removal from a simulated dye wastewater using a two-phase anaerobic packed bed reactor. Water Res 35:425–432
Tan L, Qu Y, Zhou J, Ma F, Li A (2009a) Dynamics of microbial community for X-3B wastewater decolorization coping with high-salt and metal ions conditions. Biores Technol 100:3003–3009
Tan L, Qu YY, Zhou JT, Li A, Gou M (2009b) Identification and characteristics of a novel salt-tolerant Exiguobacterium sp for azo dyes decolorization. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 159(3):728–738
Tan NCG, Prenafeta-Boldu FX, Opsteeg JL, Lettinga G, Field JA (1999) Biodegradation of azo dyes in cocultures of anaerobic granular sludge with aerobic aromatic amine degrading enrichment cultures. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 51:865–871
Tan NCG, van Leeuwen A, van Voorthuizen EM, Slenders P, Prenafeta-Boldu FX, Temmink H, Lettinga G, Field JA (2005) Fate and biodegradability of sulfonated aromatic amines. Biodegradation 16:527–537
Thurnheer T, Kohler T, Cook AM, Leisinger T (1986) Orthanilic acid and analogues as carbon sources for bacteria: growth physiology and enzymic desulphonation. J Gen Microbiol 132:1215–1220
Umbuzeiro GA, Freeman H, Warren SH, Oliveira DP, Terao Y, Watanabe T, Claxton LD (2005) The contribution of azo dyes to the mutagenic activity of the Cristais River. Chemosphere 60:55–64
VA Tech WABAG (2003) Drews Merane treats color by bacteria. Online at www.Vatechwabag.com
Van der Zee FP, Burwman RHM, Strik DPTB, Lettinga G, Field JA (2001a) Application of redox mediators to accelerate the transformation of reactive azo dyes in anaerobic bioreactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 75:691–701
Van der Zee FP, Bisschops IAE, Blanchard VG, Bouwman RHM, Lettinga G, Field JA (2003) The contribution of biotic and abiotic processes during azo dye reduction in anaerobic sludge. Water Res 37:3098–3109
Van der Zee FP, Cervantes FJ (2009) Impact and application of electron shuttles on the redox (Bio) transformation of contaminants: a review. Biotechnol Adv 27:256–277
Van der Zee FP, Lettinga G, Field JA (2000) The role of (auto) catalysis in the mechanism of anaerobic azo reduction. Water Sci Technol 42:301–308
Van der Zee FP, Lettinga G, Field JA (2001b) Azo dye decolorization by anaerobic granular sludge. Chemosphere 44:1169–1176
Van der Zee FP, Villaverde S (2005) Combined anaerobic-aerobic treatment of azo dyes-a short review of bioreactor studie. Water Res 39:1425–1440
Vandevivere PC, Binachi R, Verstrate W (1998) Treatment of wastewater from textile Wet processing industry: review of emerging technologies. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 72:289–302
Walker R, Ryan AJ (1971) Some molecular parameters influencing rate of reductions of azo compounds by intestinal microflora. Xenobiotica 1:483–486
Wang A, Qu J, Liu H, Ge J (2004) Degradation of azo dye Acid Red 14 in aqueous solution by electrokinetic and electooxidation process. Chemosphere 55:1189–1196
Wang CJ, Hagemeier C, Rahman N, Lowe E, Noble M, Coughtrie M, Sim E, Westwood I (2007) Molecular cloning, characterisation and ligand-bound structure of an azoreductase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Mol Biol 373(5):1213–1228
Wang X, Cheng X, Sun D, Qi H (2008) Biodecolorization and partial mineralization of Reactive Black 5 by a strain of Rhodopseudomonas palustris. J Environ Sci 20:1218–1225
Wang YQ, Zhang JS, Zhou JT, Zhang JP (2009) Biodegradation of 4-aminobenzenesulfonate by a novel Pannonibacter sp. W1 isolated from activated sludge. J Hazard Mater 169:1163–1167
Weber EJ (1996) Iron mediated reductive transformation: investigation of reaction mechanism. Environ Sci Techol 30:716–719
Weber EJ, Wolfe NL (1987) Kinetic studies of the reduction of aromatic azo compounds in anaerobic sediment/water systems. Environ Toxicol Chem 6:911–919
Weisburger JH (2002) Comments on the history and importance of aromatic and heterocyclic amines in public health. Mutat Res 30:506–507
Willetts JRM, Ashbolt NJ, Moosbrugger RE, Aslam MR (2000) The use of a thermophilic anaerobic system for pretreatment of textile dye wastewater. Water Sci Technol 42:309–316
Wittich RM, Rast HG, Knackmuss HJ (1988) Degradation of Naphthalene-2,6- and Naphthalene-1,6-Disulfonic Acid by a Moraxella sp. Appl Environ Microbiol 54(7):1842–1847
Xingzu W, Xiang C, Dezhi S, Hong Q (2008) Biodecolorization and partial mineralization of Reactive Black 5 by a strain of Rhodopseudomonas palustris. J Environ Sci 20:1218–1225
Xu M, Guo J, Sun G (2007) Biodegradation of textile azo dye by Shewanella decolorationis S12 under microaerophilic conditions. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 76(3):719–726
Yemashova N, Telegina A, Kotova I, Netrusova A, Kalyuzhnyl S (2004) Decolorization and Partial degradation of selected azo dyes by methanogenic sludge. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 119:31–40
Yoo ES (2002) Chemical decolorization of the azo dye CI Reactive Orange 96 by various organic/inorganic compounds. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 77:481–485
Yoo ES, Libra J, Adrian L (2001) Mechanism of decolrization of azo dyes in an anaerobic mixed culture. J Environ Eng (ASCE) 127:844–849
Yoo ES, Libra J, Wiesmann U (2000) Reduction of azo dyes by Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. Water Sci Technol 41:15–22
Yu J, Wang X, Yue PL (2001) Optimal decolorization and kinetic modeling of synthetic dyes by Pseudomonas strains. Water Res 35:3579–3586
Zeroual Y, Kim BS, Yang MW, Blaghen M, Lee KM (2007) Decolorization of some Azo dyes by immobilized Geotrichum sp. biomass in fluidized bed reactor. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 142:307–316
Zimmermann T, Gasser F, Kulla H, Leisinger T (1984) Comparison of two bacterial azoreductases acquired during adaptation to growth on azo dyes. Arch Microbiol 138:37–43
Zimmermann T, Kulla H, Leisinger T (1982) Properties of purified orange II-azoreductase, the enzyme initiating azo dye degradation by Pseudomonas KF46. Eur J Biochem 129:197–203
Zollinger H (1991) Color chemistry, 2nd edn, VCH Weinheim Impact and application of electron shuttles on the redox (bio)transformation of contaminants: a review
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Singh, P., Iyengar, L., Pandey, A. (2012). Bacterial Decolorization and Degradation of Azo Dyes. In: Singh, S. (eds) Microbial Degradation of Xenobiotics. Environmental Science and Engineering(). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-23789-8_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-23789-8_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-23788-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-23789-8
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)